Deflation

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<p>GUEST OBSERVER</p>
<p>Deflation refers to persistent and generalised price falls.</p>
<p>It occurred in the 1800s, 1930s and the last 20 years in Japan. Most people would see falling prices as good because they can buy more with their income. However, deflation can be good or bad depending on the circumstances.</p>
<p>In the period 1870-1895 in the US, deflation occurred against a background of strong economic growth, reflecting rapid productivity growth and technological innovation. This can be called “good deflation”. However, falling prices are not good if they are associated with falling wages, rising unemployment, falling asset prices and rising real debt burdens. For example, in the 1930s and more recently in Japan. This is “bad deflation”.</p>
<p>In the current environment of high debt levels, sustained deflation could cause big problems. Falling wages and prices would make it harder to service debts. Lower nominal growth will mean less growth in tax revenues making high public debt levels harder to pay off. And when prices fall people put off decisions to spend and invest, which could threaten economic growth. This could risk a debt deflation spiral of falling asset prices and falling incomes leading to rising debt burdens, increasing defaults, spurring more falls in asset prices, etc. There are good reasons why central banks want to avoid that.</p>
<p>As can be seen in the next chart, there are still more countries experiencing deflation than hyperinflation.</p>
<h1><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Tahoma, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"><a href="/images/2016/05/31/chart-2.png" target="_blank">Click to enlarge</a></span></h1>
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<img src="/images/2016/05/31/chart-2.png" alt=""><br><p>Source: Thomson Reuters, AMP Capital</p>
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<p>The RBA eased this month because actual inflation has fallen below target and is likely to stay there for a while.</p>
<p>Cutting inflation targets would be foolish and make it harder to get inflation back up to target.</p>
<p>Low rates are helping the Australian economy and zero rates and quantitative easing have helped the US. Central banks are not out of ammo.</p>
<p>For investors, it’s likely to remain a low interest rate environment for some time to come.</p>
<p>This year has seen a growing concern that central banks are out of ammo when it comes to reinvigorating global growth and preventing deflation. And the Reserve Bank of Australia’s latest rate cut has some fearing that it’s going down the same “failed path” as other major central banks. But is it really that bad? Have central banks really failed? Are they really out of ammo?</p>
<p>Why did the RBA ease again?</p>
<p>The latest RBA rate cut, which took the official cash rate to a record low of 1.75% percent, surprised many because recent economic data in Australia has been OK. But the reason for the cut is simple. Inflation has fallen well below the RBA’s 2-3 percent target, the weakness in prices was broad based and inflation is expected by the RBA to remain below target or at the low end of the target for some time.</p>
<p><a href="/images/2016/05/31/chart-1.png" target="_blank">Click to enlarge</a></p>
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<p><span>Source: ABS, RBA, AMP Capital</span></p>
<p>Naturally, the RBA worried that if it didn’t provide more stimulus to the economy low inflation could become entrenched and could give way to deflation. With the $A pushing up towards $US0.80 prior to the cut and the Fed continuing to delay rate hikes, the RBA was no doubt also concerned that if it didn’t ease the $A would push even higher, putting more downwards pressure on inflation.</p>
<h2>Why not just lower the inflation target?</h2>
<p>Since the last RBA cut, some have said that the RBA should just lower its inflation target because it cannot fight falling global commodity prices and what’s wrong with very low inflation anyway. This reminds me of a similar argument back in 2007-08, when inflation had pushed above 4%, that the RBA should not worry but just raise its inflation target as it cannot fight rising global commodity prices. Such arguments are nonsense.</p>
<p>First, the whole point of having an inflation target is to anchor inflation expectations. If the target is just raised or lowered each time it looks like being seriously breached then those expectations - which workers use to form wage demands and companies use in setting wages and prices - will simply move up or down depending on which way the target is changed. And so inflationary or deflationary shocks from things like commodity prices will turn into permanent shifts up or down in inflation. Second, there are problems with allowing too-low inflation. Most central bank inflation targets are set at 2% or so because statistical measures of inflation tend to overstate actual inflation by 1-2% because statisticians have trouble actually adjusting for quality improvements and so some measured price rises really reflect quality improvements. In other words, 1.5% inflation could mean we are actually in deflation. And there are problems with deflation – see below.</p>
<h2>How far will the RBA cut rates?</h2>
<p>To the extent that the minutes from the RBA’s May meeting indicate the RBA had considered “waiting for more information”, it may choose to sit tight at its June meeting. However, given the downside risks to inflation, particularly with wages growth falling to a record low 2.1%, constrained growth and the still high $A more rate cuts are likely. We are allowing for two more rate cuts this year, taking the cash rate to 1.25% by year end.</p>
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<h2>What has been driving deflation?</h2>
<p>Several factors have driven the plunge in global inflation and some countries dipping into deflation: commodity prices have been in a downtrend since 2011 as their supply surged; and the sub-par global recovery since 2009 means the world has plenty of spare capacity. Global economic activity is around 2.5% below potential. Excess capacity means companies lack pricing power and workers lack bargaining power.</p>
<h2>But are rate cuts actually working?</h2>
<p>Some worry that rate cuts have just made things worse by cutting into the spending power of retirees and forcing those nearing retirement to save more. However, there are several points to note in relation to this. First, the level of household deposits in banks in Australia at around $0.9 trillion is swamped by the level of household debt at $2.2 trillion. So the household sector is a huge net beneficiary of lower interest rates. Second, the responsiveness to changes in spending power for a family with a mortgage is far greater than for retirees. Third, the proof is in the pudding. The fall in interest rates has helped the economy rebalance as mining investment has collapsed: first via a pick-up in housing construction and more recently via growth in consumer spending of close to 3% per annum (pa). While those close to retirement may be saving more because of lower investment returns, the household saving rate overall has drifted down from 11% to around 8% since the first RBA rate cut in late 2011. And of course RBA rate cuts have helped push the $A lower. So overall, rate cuts do work.</p>
<h2>Have non-traditional monetary policies failed?</h2>
<p>This is a relevant question with many saying that zero interest rates and quantitative easing in developed countries have not worked. But actually in the US they have as growth there has been averaging around potential at 2% pa, unemployment has fallen from 10% to below 6%, wages look to be picking up and underlying inflation is close to the Fed’s 2% inflation target. Sure, the Eurozone and particularly Japan are less clear but this may be because they waited too long before acting by which time low inflation or deflation had become entrenched. The lesson from this is that central banks need to act quickly and not that non-traditional monetary policy doesn’t work.</p>
<h2>Are central banks out of ammo?</h2>
<p>This is a common concern. However, central banks are a long way from being unable to do anything: the Fed can reverse last year’s interest rate hike and launch another round of quantitative easing if needed; and both the ECB and Bank of Japan could expand their quantitative easing programs further both in terms of size and the type of assets. More negative interest rates are an option but central banks are wary of this after the adverse impact of Japan’s experience regarding negative rates.</p>
<p>The ultimate option is for central banks to provide direct financing of government spending or tax cuts using printed money. This is often referred to as “helicopter money”. Unlike quantitative easing, which requires banks to lend their newfound cash to borrowers who want to borrow, it would yield an almost guaranteed response as the recipients of government spending/tax cuts will spend at least some of it. It won’t add to government debt either. As the examples of Zimbabwe and the Weimar Republic demonstrate, such an approach would make no sense if supply is constrained relative to demand and inflation is already high and rising. But that is not the case now and deflation remains the main threat, not inflation.</p>
<p>Of course none of these are an issue for the RBA as it still has plenty of scope to cut interest rates if needed.</p>
<p>Ideally, central banks should be getting more help from governments in terms of fiscal stimulus and supply side reforms but there are all sorts of constraints around this.</p>
<h2>Implications for investors?</h2>
<p>There are a number of implications for investors. First, while the worst may be over in terms of commodity price falls so the threat from deflation may be receding globally, the risk remains thanks to spare capacity and low wages growth, so low interest rates will remain in place for some time. While the Fed may continue down its path of gradual rate hikes, elsewhere rates are likely to stay low and, in Australia, fall further. Australian term deposit rates at around 2% are at their lowest since the early 1950s. So don’t expect great returns from them.</p>
<p>Second, given the absence of significant monetary tightening, a 1994-style bond crash remains as distant as ever. The most likely outcome is just low returns from government bonds.</p>
<p>Third, the low interest rate environment means the chase for yield is likely to continue supporting commercial property, infrastructure and shares offering sustainable high dividends.</p>
<p>Finally, as can be seen in the next chart, low inflation is generally good for shares as it allows shares to trade on higher price to earnings multiples. But it would be preferable not to see low inflation slip into deflation as this could be bad for shares given it tends to go with poor growth and profits and as a result shares trade on lower PEs. The same would apply to assets like commercial property and infrastructure.</p>
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<div class="article-body"><a href="/images/2016/05/31/chart-3.png" target="_blank">Click to enlarge</a></div>
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<img src="/images/2016/05/31/chart-3.png" alt=""><br><p><span>Source: Global Financial Data, Bloomberg, AMP Capital</span></p>
<p>So, combined with the social damage that a bout of debt deflation could cause, I would much prefer to see central banks continue to do all they can to avoid deflation.</p>
<p><em><span><a href="https://www.propertyobserver.com.au/https://plus.google.com/110172465327488162875?rel=author" target="_blank">SHANE OLIVER</a></span> is head of investment strategy and economics and chief economist at <a href="https://www.ampcapital.com.au/home" target="_blank">AMP Capital</a> and is responsible for AMP Capital's diversified investment funds.</em></p>
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RBA rate cuts, inflation targets, deflation and are central banks out of ammo? AMP Capital's Shane Oliver

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<p><span>GUEST OBSERVATION</span></p>
<p><span>Today we're laying a loose framework for the best investments during deflation. Why? Because deflationary signals have reared their ugly head as of late. Not to mention, many prominent investment managers have voiced their concern about the dreaded scenario. </span></p>
<p><span>While </span>inflation versus deflation<span> has been the great debate over the past two years, the deflationistas have been boasting quite loudly as of late.</span><br><br><span>We've detailed how David Gerstenhaber's global macro hedge fund Argonaut Capital thinks </span>deflation is the greater risk<span>. Additionally, Broyhill's Affinity hedge fund has been </span>betting on deflation<span> as of late. PIMCO's bond king Bill Gross has been buying treasuries in order to combat these fears. And for more, The Reformed Broker has a quick </span>summary of the New York Times' deflation round-up<span> as well.</span><br><br><span>While investing during the dreaded 'D' word is not impossible, the options to preserve and grow capital are certainly limited. So, what is the best investment for deflation? Very broadly and in no particular order, here's some potential answers:</span><br><br><span>Cash/US Dollar</span><span>: The phrase "cash is king" is often cliche. It's not cliche during deflation, it's rule number one. Assuredly, cash is one of the few 'safe' investments you can make in this scenario. Over the normal course of investing, most investors focus on their return on capital. </span></p>
<p>This time around, the focus is simply on return *of* capital. While many wouldn't consider this an investment, having physical cash notes saved and on hand can be crucial during extreme situations including: bank failures, a collapse in credit, or the government defaulting on its debt. Not to mention, the US dollar has been a strong performer during deflationary times. Holding the physical currency is easy enough, but those wishing to further their wager can play the PowerShares US Dollar Bullish Index (UUP).<br><br>Pay Off Debt: Again while 'paying down debt' doesn't sound like an investment, it most definitely is during deflation. In a period where literally every single dollar matters, each dollar of debt can become crippling.<br><br>Buy Long-Term Bonds: Alternative to cash, fixed income is also seen as an option for those who seek protection. While fixed income yields decline due to Federal Reserve easing in an effort to combat deflation, the underlying bond should appreciate (or at the very least, depreciate much less than equities). US Treasuries are highly coveted here as they are the safest and most in-demand. If one were to go the corporate bond route, seeking high quality bonds is preferred. The thesis behind this play is laid out by Broyhill's Affinity hedge fund in their presentations: ten reasons to buy bonds as well as their bet on long-term treasuries. The most logical wager here would be the iShares Barclays 20+ year Treasury (TLT).<br><br>Short Equities: Traditional investments will start to suffer as underlying companies will see lower margins and losses. Not to mention, highly leveraged companies make ideal short selling targets and certain companies can face the risk of becoming insolvent. If your conviction is strong enough, you could simply short the S&amp;P 500 index (SPY). There is, however, one potential safe haven in equities (keyword being 'potential'), which brings us to the next investment:<br><br>Buy High Quality Dividend Paying Stocks: Understand that during deflation, equities in general are one of the major investments to avoid. However, high quality stocks could be a potentially dim light in an otherwise dark scenario. While the majority of companies will lose pricing power and succumb to weak margins, large cap high quality companies that dominate their industries may be able to maintain pricing power. Not to mention, many of these stocks pay dividends which generate valuable cash during deflation. Seek companies with pristine balance sheets.<br><br>GMO's Jeremy Grantham recently voiced concern about deflation and one of his few investment recommendations was to buy high quality stocks. For ideas, hedge fund T2 Partners recently issued a presentation on 3 large cap stocks. Sectors to look toward include healthcare, technology, and telecom as those have outperformed in Japan during their deflationary lost decade. Microsoft (MSFT) is one name that has been repeatedly mentioned by strategists and managers. Keep in mind though that despite being high quality blue-chip companies, these are still equities. As such, there is obviously inherent risk in owning them during deflation.<br><br>Short Housing/Avoid Real Estate: In deflation, prices fall. As such, rent rather than own. Stand back and let the landlords watch the values of their properties plummet. You can short the iShares Dow Jones US Real Estate (IYR) for some exposure.<br><br>Short Leverage: Deleveraging should be a big theme playing out in the future, environment notwithstanding. As mentioned earlier, short the equity of companies that have poor balance sheets and are highly levered. In deflation, leverage begins to unwind and currency plays can be found. A massive leveraged carry trade in the Yen has taken place over the years and as such would be unwound in deflation, thus benefiting the Yen.<br><br>Long Technology: Regardless of environment, technology will advance and will be in demand. The technology sector was highlighted as one of the few areas to possible allocate capital in high quality equities. Companies that have strangleholds on their industry should have an advantage. A basket of technology stocks could be purchased via the technology exchange traded fund (XLK). However, that gives you exposure to a lot of companies and it's probably more preferable to single out high quality technology names with pristine balance sheets such as Microsoft (MSFT), Intel (INTC), and Cisco Systems (CSCO).<br><br>Gold: Conventional wisdom says to avoid precious metals during deflation. During the Great Depression from 1929-1932, commodities in general crashed. However, in very extreme circumstances (emphasis on extreme), some have argued that gold can make sense when acting as currency. The majority of proponents for owning gold during deflation would cite its store of value or hedge against uncertainty. While gold can be played via the SPDR Gold Fund (GLD), many hedge funds advocate physical gold. That said, those doing so are mainly seeking inflationary protection.<br><br>Buy TIPS: Treasury Inflation Protected Securities, or TIPS, serve as long-term protection from inflation. Buying TIPS during deflation? What's the point? This is an option if investors believe that deflation will eventually lead to inflation two or three years later. As policy makers attempt to combat deflation, the natural antidote is inflationary medicine. As such, investors looking further down the road can fend off these inflationary pressures with TIPS. And even if deflation persists for an extended period of time, TIPS still produce income via yield and investors can regain their bond's face value at maturity. This can be played via iShares Barclays TIPS Bond Fund (TIP) for those looking for an easy solution.<br><br>That sums up some of the best ways to position a portfolio when confronted with deflation. Recent concern is duly warranted considering that deflation typically rears its ugly head after periods of prolonged globalization and global growth. Such growth leads to increased investment, a massive increase in production, and thus excess capacity all around the world. This excess capacity then brings forth lower prices. In deflation, companies suffer while the consumer is the real winner. The above present theoretical options of how to invest during such a scenario. Make no mistake though, investing during deflation can be quite difficult and painful.<br><br>Back in August 2008 when the crisis was heating up, we penned a very broad outline of investment scenarios for inflation versus deflation. During the pinnacle of the crisis, it wasn't quite clear which situation would play out so it made sense to lay a framework for each context. (And arguably, it's still not entirely clear. Many have hypothesized that we'll see a compromise of views: deflation in the near-term and inflation in the long-term). A few months ago, inflation was all the rage. Now, deflation is the primary concern. Investors have been flip-flopping more frequently than politicians as of late.<br><br>Regardless of outcome, it makes sense to be prepared for either environment. </p>
<p>This article is reprinted from market folly, Monday 9 August 2010.</p>
<p>For more information, <a href="https://www.marketfolly.com" target="_blank">click here</a>.<br><br></p>
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